A Critical Review of the Literature on Structural Adjustment and the Environment
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World Bank, Washington, DC
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This paper analyzes the available
literature about the effects of structural adjustment
programs (SAPs) on the environment and the convincing
evidence for their success or failure. The studies covered
refer to the SAPs by the World Bank as well as to general
government programs that have similar policy implications.
SAPs are designed to reform economies to become more
liberalized and export-oriented while reducing the role of
governments that have become inefficient bureaucracies.
Because of the implications of policies such as debt
accumulation and trade, a concise literature review on debt
and trade liberalization is also included. Despite the
controversy surrounding structural adjustment and the
environment, the debate has been largely based on anecdotal
evidence and country case studies. Most of the studies
reviewed are not quantitative and have not applied rigorous
statistical methods. The conclusions of studies on the
effects of structural adjustment (SA) on the environment are
strongly influenced by what is examined, the sectoral level,
and the stage of the SA process. The infrequency of
high-caliber studies is due to data scarcity and statistical
limitations. There is little reason to doubt, however, that
over the longer term, the sorts of changes in incentive
structures and relative price changes brought about by SA
lending will have an impact on the environment. Economies
undergoing SA will experience both growth (assuming the
success of SAPs) and structural shifts, which will affect
the extraction of natural resources and the level of
pollution emissions.
Palabras clave
ENVIRONMENT, STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMS, GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS, ECONOMIC REFORM, TRADE LIBERALIZATION, POLLUTION, AGRICULTURE, LAND TENURE, FORESTRY, WATER SECTOR, ENERGY, URBAN ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC SECTOR, GOVERNANCE ACCOUNTING, ADVERSE EFFECTS, AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION, AGRICULTURE, ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE, ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK, BIODIVERSITY, CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS, CIVIL SERVICE, COAL, COASTAL ZONES, COMMODITIES, CONSERVATION, COST OF CAPITAL, CREDIT RATIONING, CROP MIX, CROP YIELDS, CROPS, DEBT, DEFORESTATION, DEREGULATION, DEVELOPMENT BANKS, ECONOMIC ACTIVITY, ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY, ECONOMIC GROWTH, ECONOMIC INCENTIVES, ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS, ECONOMIC LIBERALIZATION, ECONOMIC REFORM, ECONOMIC SECTORS, ECONOMIC WELFARE, EMISSIONS, ENERGY CONSUMPTION, ENTITLEMENTS, ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS, ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE, ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION, ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES, ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION, ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY, EQUILIBRIUM, EXPENDITURES, EXPLOITATION, FARMERS, FARMING, FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS, FINANCIAL SECTOR, FOREST MANAGEMENT, FORESTRY, FORESTS, FUEL, FUEL WOOD, GREENHOUSE, GREENHOUSE GASES, INCOME, INCOME DISTRIBUTION, INCOME LEVELS, INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT, INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT, IRRIGATION, LAND PRICES, LAND TENURE, LIVESTOCK, LIVING STANDARDS, LOW-INCOME COUNTRIES, LRMC, MAIZE, MANURE, MARGINAL LANDS, MIGRATION, NATIONAL INCOME, NATURAL ENVIRONMENT, NATURAL RESOURCES, OIL, OIL CRISIS, OVERGRAZING, PESTICIDE USE, PESTICIDES, POLLUTION, POPULATION PRESSURES, PRICE CHANGES, PRIVATE SECTOR, PRIVATIZATION, PRODUCTIVITY, PROFITABILITY, PROPERTY RIGHTS, PUBLIC FINANCE, QUOTAS, REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT BANKS, RESERVOIRS, RESOURCE USE, SAPS, SOCIAL SERVICES, SOIL DEGRADATION, SOIL EROSION, SOIL FERTILITY, SOILS, STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT, SUBSIDIARY, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, SUSTAINABLE USE, TAXATION, TRADE LIBERALIZATION, TRANSPORT, TREES, UNEMPLOYMENT, URBAN CENTERS, URBAN ENVIRONMENT, URBANIZATION, WASTE, WASTE MANAGEMENT, WATER RESOURCES, WATER USE, WATERSHED, WATERSHED MANAGEMENT, WETLANDS