Why Does the Productivity of Education Vary across Individuals in Egypt? Firm Size, Gender, and Access to Technology as Sources of Heterogeneity in Returns to Education

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dc.creatorBadr, Karim
dc.creatorHerrera, Santiago
dc.date2012-03-19T18:03:37Z
dc.date2012-03-19T18:03:37Z
dc.date2011-07-01
dc.date.accessioned2026-07-01T01:05:08Z
dc.descriptionThe paper estimates the rates of return to investment in education in Egypt, allowing for multiple sources of heterogeneity across individuals. The paper finds that, in the period 1998-2006, returns to education increased for workers with higher education, but fell for workers with intermediate education levels; the relative wage of illiterate workers also fell in the period. This change can be explained by supply and demand factors. On the supply side, the number workers with intermediate education, as well as illiterate ones, outpaced the growth of other categories joining the labor force during the decade. From the labor demand side, the Egyptian economy experienced a structural transformation by which sectors demanding higher-skilled labor, such as financial intermediation and communications, gained importance to the detriment of agriculture and construction, which demand lower-skilled workers. In Egypt, individuals are sorted into different educational tracks, creating the first source of heterogeneity: those that are sorted into the general secondary-university track have higher returns than those sorted into vocational training. Second, the paper finds that large-firm workers earn higher returns than small-firm workers. Third, females have larger returns to education. Female government workers earn similar wages as private sector female workers, while male workers in the private sector earn a premium of about 20 percent on average. This could lead to higher female reservation wages, which could explain why female unemployment rates are significantly higher than male unemployment rates. Formal workers earn higher rates of return to education than those in the informal sector, which did not happen a decade earlier. And finally, those individuals with access to technology (as proxied by personal computer ownership) have higher returns.
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dc.formattext/plain
dc.identifierhttp://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/main?menuPK=64187510&pagePK=64193027&piPK=64187937&theSitePK=523679&menuPK=64187510&searchMenuPK=64187283&siteName=WDS&entityID=000158349_20110727094819
dc.identifierhttps://hdl.handle.net/10986/3503
dc.identifierhttps://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5740
dc.identifier.urihttp://hdl.handle.net/123456789/415078
dc.languageEnglish
dc.relationPolicy Research working paper ; no. WPS 5740
dc.rightsCC BY 3.0 IGO
dc.rightshttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/
dc.rightsWorld Bank
dc.subjectACCESS TO COMPUTERS
dc.subjectBASIC EDUCATION
dc.subjectCHILDREN
dc.subjectCLASSROOM
dc.subjectCOMMUNICATION
dc.subjectCOMPLETION
dc.subjectCOMPULSORY EDUCATION
dc.subjectCOMPUTER SKILLS
dc.subjectCOMPUTERS IN EDUCATION
dc.subjectCURRICULA
dc.subjectCURRICULUM
dc.subjectDEMAND FOR EDUCATION
dc.subjectDISTANCE LEARNING
dc.subjectEARLY EDUCATION
dc.subjectEDUCATION
dc.subjectEDUCATION ECONOMICS
dc.subjectEDUCATION LEVEL
dc.subjectEDUCATION SYSTEM
dc.subjectEDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
dc.subjectEDUCATIONAL LEVEL
dc.subjectEDUCATIONAL PATHS
dc.subjectEMPLOYEES
dc.subjectFEMALE EDUCATION
dc.subjectFEMALE EMPLOYMENT
dc.subjectFEMALE GRADUATES
dc.subjectFEMALE LABOR
dc.subjectFEMALE LABOR FORCE
dc.subjectFIRM SIZE
dc.subjectGENDER DIFFERENCES
dc.subjectGENERAL EDUCATION
dc.subjectGENERAL SECONDARY EDUCATION
dc.subjectGRADUATES
dc.subjectGROUPS
dc.subjectHIGHER EDUCATION
dc.subjectHIGHER LEVELS OF EDUCATION
dc.subjectHOUSEHOLD CONSUMPTION
dc.subjectHUMAN CAPITAL
dc.subjectILLITERATE POPULATION
dc.subjectILLITERATES
dc.subjectINFORMAL SECTOR
dc.subjectINTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
dc.subjectINVESTMENT
dc.subjectINVESTMENT IN EDUCATION
dc.subjectITS
dc.subjectJOB
dc.subjectJOB TRAINING
dc.subjectKNOWLEDGE
dc.subjectLABOR
dc.subjectLABOR CONTRACT
dc.subjectLABOR DEMAND
dc.subjectLABOR FORCE
dc.subjectLABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION
dc.subjectLABOR MARKET
dc.subjectLABOR MARKETS
dc.subjectLABOR PRODUCTIVITY
dc.subjectLEARNING
dc.subjectLEARNING PROCESS
dc.subjectLEARNING PROGRAMS
dc.subjectLEVEL OF EDUCATION
dc.subjectLEVELS OF EDUCATION
dc.subjectLOWER LEVELS OF EDUCATION
dc.subjectMALE WORKERS
dc.subjectMANAGEMENT
dc.subjectMATHEMATICS
dc.subjectON-THE-JOB TRAINING
dc.subjectPAPERS
dc.subjectPARTICIPATION
dc.subjectPARTICIPATION RATES
dc.subjectPREVIOUS DRAFT
dc.subjectPREVIOUS STUDIES
dc.subjectPRIMARY EDUCATION
dc.subjectPRIMARY LEVEL
dc.subjectPRIVATE SECTOR
dc.subjectPRIVATE SECTOR WORKERS
dc.subjectQUALITY OF EDUCATION
dc.subjectRATES OF RETURN
dc.subjectRATES OF RETURN TO EDUCATION
dc.subjectRETAIL TRADE
dc.subjectRETURNS TO EDUCATION
dc.subjectSCHOOL
dc.subjectSCHOOL DROP
dc.subjectSCHOOL DROP-OUT RATES
dc.subjectSCHOOLING
dc.subjectSCHOOLS
dc.subjectSECONDARY CERTIFICATE
dc.subjectSECONDARY EDUCATION
dc.subjectSECONDARY STUDENTS
dc.subjectSKILLED LABOR
dc.subjectSKILLED WORKERS
dc.subjectSKILLS
dc.subjectSOCIAL WORK
dc.subjectSTATE-OWNED ENTERPRISES
dc.subjectSTATISTICS
dc.subjectSTUDENTS
dc.subjectSTUDIES
dc.subjectSTUDY
dc.subjectSUBSTITUTION EFFECT
dc.subjectTEACHERS
dc.subjectTECHNOLOGY
dc.subjectTRAINING
dc.subjectUNEMPLOYED
dc.subjectUNEMPLOYMENT
dc.subjectUNEMPLOYMENT RATE
dc.subjectUNEMPLOYMENT RATES
dc.subjectUNIVERSITY EDUCATION
dc.subjectUNSKILLED LABOR
dc.subjectVOCATIONAL EDUCATION
dc.subjectVOCATIONAL TRAINING
dc.subjectWAGE DISPERSION
dc.subjectWAGE INEQUALITY
dc.subjectWAGE LEVELS
dc.subjectWAGE PREMIUM
dc.subjectWAGE PREMIUMS
dc.subjectWOMEN
dc.titleWhy Does the Productivity of Education Vary across Individuals in Egypt? Firm Size, Gender, and Access to Technology as Sources of Heterogeneity in Returns to Education

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