India : Diagnostic Assessment of Select Environmental Challenges, Volume 2. Economic Growth and Environmental Sustainability, What Are the Tradeoffs?
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This report provides estimates of social
and financial costs of environmental damage in India from
three pollution damage categories: (i) urban air pollution,
including particulate matter and lead; (ii) inadequate water
supply, poor sanitation, and hygiene; (iii) indoor air
pollution; and four natural resource damage categories: (a)
agricultural damage from soil salinity, water logging, and
soil erosion; (b) rangeland degradation; (c) deforestation;
and (d) natural disasters. The estimates are based on a
combination of Indian data from secondary sources and on the
transfer of unit costs of pollution from a range of national
and international studies. The quantification and monetary
valuation of environmental damage involves many scientific
disciplines including environmental, physical, and
biological and health sciences, epidemiology, and
environmental economics. Estimates of the costs of
degradation are generally reported as a percent of
conventional gross domestic product (GDP). This provides a
useful estimate of the importance of environmental damages
but it should not be interpreted that GDP will increase by a
given percent if the degradation were to be reduced to zero.
Any measures to reduce environmental degradation will have a
cost and the additional cost goes up the greater is the
reduction that is made. Hence a program to remove all
degradation can well result in a lower GDP. This report
provides a measure of the overall damage relative to a
benchmark, in which all damages related to economic activity
are eliminated. The report is structured as follows: section
one provides a summary of estimated social and financial
costs of environmental damage; section two focuses on urban
air pollution; section three deals with water supply,
sanitation, and hygiene; section four focuses on indoor air
pollution; section five focuses on land degradation, crop
production, and rangeland degradation; and section six deals
with forest degradation.
Palabras clave
ABATEMENT, ABATEMENT COSTS, ABRASION, ACID, ACID RAIN, AIR, AIR POLLUTANTS, AIR POLLUTION, AIR POLLUTION CONTROL, AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS, AIR QUALITY, ALTERNATIVE SCENARIOS, AMBIENT CONCENTRATIONS, ANNUAL GROWTH RATE, ASH, BIOGAS, BIOMASS, BIOSPHERE, BOILERS, BUSINESS AS USUAL SCENARIO, CALORIFIC VALUE, CANCER, CARBON, CARBON ABATEMENT, CARBON CAPTURE, CARBON DIOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS, CARBON EMISSIONS, CARBON SEQUESTRATION, CARBONIZATION, CHEMICALS, CIRCULAR FLOW, CLEAN AIR, CLEAN AIR ACT, CLEAN ENERGY, CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES, CLEANER TECHNOLOGIES, CLIMATE, CLIMATE CHANGE, CO, CO2, COAL, COMBUSTION, COMPENSATING WAGE DIFFERENTIALS, CONCENTRATIONS OF POLLUTANTS, COST OF PRODUCTION, CRUDE OIL, DAMAGES, DEFORESTATION, DEMAND FOR ENERGY, DEMOGRAPHICS, DEVELOPED COUNTRIES, DIESEL, DISTRIBUTIONAL IMPACTS, DISTRIBUTIONAL IMPLICATIONS, ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS, ECONOMIC ACTIVITY, ECONOMIC BENEFITS, ECONOMIC COSTS, ECONOMIC DATA, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMIC GROWTH, ECONOMIC IMPACTS, ECONOMIC INCENTIVES, ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS, ECONOMICS, ECOSYSTEM, EFFICIENCY GAINS, EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS, ELASTICITIES, ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICITY GENERATION, EMISSION, EMISSION ABATEMENT, EMISSION BASELINE, EMISSION COEFFICIENTS, EMISSION CONTROL, EMISSION DATA, EMISSION ESTIMATES, EMISSION LEVEL, EMISSION LEVELS, EMISSION REDUCTION, EMISSION REDUCTION POLICIES, EMISSION TAXES, EMISSION TRADING, EMISSIONS, EMISSIONS FROM FUEL, EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION, EMISSIONS REDUCTION, END-USE ENERGY EFFICIENCY, ENERGY CONSUMPTION, ENERGY DEMAND, ENERGY EFFICIENCY, ENERGY POLICY, ENERGY SOURCES, ENERGY USE, ENVIRONMENTAL, ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION, ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES, ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY, ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS, ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION, ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY, ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION, ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS, ENVIRONMENTAL TARGETS, ENVIRONMENTAL TAXATION, ENVIRONMENTAL TAXES, EQUILIBRIUM, EXCHANGE RATE, EXTERNALITIES, FATS, FERROUS METALS, FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE, FINANCIAL SECTOR, FISHING, FOOD POLICY RESEARCH, FOREST, FORESTRY, FORESTS, FOSSIL FUEL, FOSSIL FUEL USE, FOSSIL FUELS, FUEL CONSUMPTION, FUEL SUBSTITUTION, FUEL USE, GHG, GLOBAL WARMING, GREENHOUSE, GREENHOUSE GAS, GREENHOUSE GAS ABATEMENT, GREENHOUSE GASES, GROWTH ASSUMPTIONS, HEAVY FUEL OIL, HYDROLOGY, IMPACTS OF EMISSION REDUCTION, INCOME, INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION, INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENT, INTERMEDIATE GOODS, INTERMEDIATE INPUTS, IRON, LABOR FORCE, LABOR MARKETS, LABOR PRODUCTIVITY, LABOR SUPPLY, LEVELS OF EMISSIONS, LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS, MARGINAL ABATEMENT, MARGINAL ABATEMENT COSTS, MARGINAL COSTS, METALS, MONETARY FUND, MONETARY TERMS, NATIONAL ACCOUNTS, NATURAL CAPITAL, NATURAL GAS, NATURAL RESOURCES, NITRATES, NITROGEN, NITROGEN OXIDES, NOX, NUCLEAR ENERGY, OIL, OIL EQUIVALENT, OIL PRODUCTS, OILS, PAPER PRODUCTS, PARTICLES, PARTICULATE, PARTICULATE MATTER, PERFORMANCE STANDARDS, PETROLEUM PRODUCTS, PM10, POLICY INSTRUMENTS, POLICY MAKERS, POLICY SCENARIOS, POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS, POLLUTION, POLLUTION CONTROL, POLLUTION REDUCTION, POPULATION GROWTH, POWER GENERATION, POWER PLANTS, POWER STATIONS, PP, PRESENT VALUE, PRICE CHANGES, PRIVATE CONSUMPTION, PRODUCER PRICE, PRODUCTION PROCESSES, PRODUCTIVITY GROWTH, PUBLIC GOOD, PURCHASING POWER, QUALITY STANDARDS, RELATIVE PRICES, RENEWABLE ENERGY, RESEARCH AGENDA, RESOURCE ALLOCATION, RESOURCE CONSERVATION, RESOURCE USE, RIVER BASINS, SCENARIOS, SO2, SOIL DEGRADATION, SOX, SUGAR CANE, SULFATES, SULFUR, SULFUR DIOXIDE, SULFUR EMISSIONS, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, SUSTAINABLE GROWTH, TAX RATES, TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE, TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS, TOTAL EMISSIONS, TRADEOFFS, TRANSPORT SECTOR, UNCERTAINTIES, UNEP, URBAN AIR POLLUTION, WASTE DISPOSAL, WATER QUALITY, WILLINGNESS TO PAY, WOOD PRODUCTS, WTP