The Contribution of African Women to Economic Growth and Development in Post-Colonial Africa : Historical Perspectives and Policy Implications
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World Bank, Washington, DC
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This paper draws on history,
anthropology, and economics to examine the dynamics and
extent of women's contribution to growth and economic
development in post-colonial Africa. The paper investigates
the paradox of increased female enrollment in education and
the persistence of gender discrimination in labor force
participation; it also considers the overwhelming importance
of the informal economy in female economic activity. The
first axis the paper studies is whether reducing educational
gender gaps enhances growth in per capita gross domestic
product and reduces female fertility rates and infant
mortality. The question is, why would some African countries
resist this pattern? The second axis examines agriculture
and home production. Women's economic activities in the
informal economy largely represent the commercialization of
domestic skills and dependence on social networks. The
shunting of female production to the informal sector in the
male-dominated colonial economy is easy to understand, but
why has the informal economy persisted where female
production is concerned well beyond the colonial period? The
paper attempts to explain these trajectories by using
country case studies on Senegal, Botswana, and Kenya.
Although women's contribution to growth and economic
development seems to be positive and significant in
predominantly Christian and mineral-rich economies, it is
more constrained in pronounced Muslim dominated countries
and agrarian economies. At the same time, impressive uniform
growth in informal sector production in recent years
suggests that occupational job segregation and gender
inequality remain strong across the region, despite the
apparent loosening of traditional norms and cultural
beliefs, most notably illustrated by the reduction in
educational gender gaps and increased female labor force
participation rates.
Palabras clave
ACCESS OF WOMEN, ACCESS TO EDUCATION, ACCESS TO RESOURCES, ACCESS TO SCHOOLING, ADULT EDUCATION, ADULT WOMEN, AGE OF MARRIAGE, AGRICULTURAL SECTOR, BASIC EDUCATION, BASIC NUMERACY, BREADWINNERS, CAPACITY OF WOMEN, CAREGIVERS, CHILD EDUCATION, CHILD HEALTH, CHILD MORTALITY, CHILD MORTALITY RATES, CIVIL WAR, COMPLETION RATES, COUNTRY CASE, COURTS, CULTURAL VALUES, CURRICULUM, CUSTOMARY LAW, DEPENDENCE ON MEN, DEPENDENCY RATIOS, DESCENT, DETERMINANTS OF GROWTH, DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, DEVELOPMENT POLICY, DROPOUT, DROPOUT RATES, ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES, ECONOMIC ACTIVITY, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT, ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN, ECONOMIC GROWTH, ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES, ECONOMICS, EDUCATION OF GIRLS, EDUCATION PROGRAMS, EDUCATION SECTOR, EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT, EDUCATIONAL GENDER, EDUCATIONAL GENDER GAPS, EDUCATIONAL POLICIES, EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM, EMPIRICAL RESULTS, EMPIRICAL STUDIES, EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES, ENROLLMENT OF CHILDREN, ENROLLMENT RATES, ENROLLMENT RATIO, EQUALITY IN EDUCATION, ETHNIC GROUPS, EXAMS, FAMILIES, FAMILY PLANNING, FAMILY PLANNING PROGRAMS, FEMALE, FEMALE ACCESS, FEMALE CHILDREN, FEMALE EDUCATION, FEMALE EMPLOYMENT, FEMALE ENROLLMENT, FEMALE LABOR, FEMALE LABOR FORCE, FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION, FEMALE MIGRANTS, FEMALE POPULATION, FEMALES, FERTILITY, FERTILITY RATE, FERTILITY RATES, FORMAL EDUCATION, GENDER, GENDER BIAS, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, GENDER EQUALITY, GENDER EQUALITY IN EDUCATION, GENDER GAP, GENDER GAPS IN ACCESS, GENDER INEQUALITIES, GENDER INEQUALITY, GENDER PARITY, GENDER RELATIONS, GIRLS, GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT, GROWTH REGRESSION, HEALTH CARE, HEALTH OUTCOMES, HEALTH SECTOR, HIGHLY EDUCATED WOMEN, HIV, HOME, HOUSEHOLD INCOME, HOUSEHOLD LEVEL, HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS, HUMAN CAPITAL, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, INCIDENCE OF POVERTY, INFANT, INFANT MORTALITY, INFECTION RATES, INFORMAL ECONOMY, INFORMAL SECTOR, INFORMAL SECTOR EMPLOYMENT, INFORMAL SECTORS, INTERVENTIONS, ISLAMIC LAW, KINSHIP, LABOR FORCE, LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION, LABOR MARKET, LEARNING, LITERACY, LITERACY CLASSES, LITERACY RATES, LONG RUN, LONG-RUN GROWTH, LOW-INCOME COUNTRIES, LOW-INCOME COUNTRY, MEDICAL SCHOOL, MIDWIVES, MIGRANTS, MIGRATION, MINORITY, MOBILITY OF WOMEN, MOTHER, NATIONAL ACCOUNTS, NATIONAL LEVEL, NATURAL RESOURCE, NATURAL RESOURCES, OFFICIAL LANGUAGE, OPPRESSION, PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN, PARTICIPATION RATES, PATRIARCHY, PERSONAL COMMUNICATION, PHARMACEUTICAL COMPANIES, PHARMACIES, POLICY DISCUSSIONS, POLICY IMPLICATIONS, POLICY RESEARCH, POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER, POLITICAL PARTICIPATION, POPULATION GROWTH, POVERTY REDUCTION, PREGNANCY, PREGNANT WOMEN, PRIMARY EDUCATION, PRIMARY ENROLLMENT, PRIMARY ENROLLMENT RATES, PRIMARY ENROLLMENTS, PRIMARY SCHOOL, PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENTS, PRIMARY SCHOOLS, PRODUCTIVITY, PROGRESS, PROSTITUTION, REDUCTION OF FERTILITY, RELIGIOUS BELIEFS, REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN, REPRODUCTIVE CAPACITY, REPRODUCTIVE ROLES, RESOURCE ALLOCATION, RICH COUNTRIES, ROLE MODELS, ROLE OF WOMEN, RURAL AREAS, RURAL POPULATIONS, SAFETY NET, SAFETY NETS, SCHOOL ATTENDANCE, SCHOOL QUALITY, SCHOOLS, SECONDARY EDUCATION, SECONDARY SCHOOL, SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL, SECONDARY SCHOOLING, SEX, SEXUAL DIVISION OF LABOR, SINGLE WOMEN, SKILLED WORKERS, SOCIAL NORMS, SOCIAL RETURNS, SOCIAL SCIENCES, SOCIAL STATUS, STATE SCHOOLS, SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE, TEACHERS, TEACHING, TECHNICAL TRAINING, TERTIARY EDUCATION, TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES, TUITION, UNDP, UNEMPLOYMENT, UNEMPLOYMENT RATES, UNESCO, UNICEF, UNIFEM, UNIVERSAL ACCESS, UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION, URBAN AREAS, URBAN CENTERS, URBAN GROWTH RATE, URBAN MIGRATION, URBAN POPULATION, URBAN POPULATIONS, URBAN WOMEN, URBANIZATION, VULNERABILITY, WAGE GAP, WARS, WDR, WIFE, WOMAN, WOMEN WORKERS, WORKFORCE, WORKING MOTHERS, YOUNG MEN, YOUNG WOMEN, YOUTH, YOUTH LITERACY