Handbook of the major forest pests in South East Europe
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Maintaining forests in good health is essential to sustain timber resources and ecosystem services, but a large number of threats can cause growth losses and mortality to trees. Forest health and vitality, therefore are considered amongst the main criteria for sustainable forest management. Causes of negative impacts on forest health include both biotic agents (such as insects, pathogens, game and other grazers) and abiotic agents (including fire, wind or snow, frost or drought). Certain anthrop ogenic impacts should also be included, for example poor harvesting practices or air pollution.